Why the Opium Wars Really Began: A Deep Dive

It all started in 1545, when the purest silver the world had ever seen was discovered in the Andes Mountains of South America.

Three decades later, in 1581, the Emperor of China announced that his people now needed to pay their taxes in silver. So, to legally pay their taxes, the Chinese citizens started to buy more silver. We all know what happens when the demand for a particular product rises. So, yes, silver became more expensive. So much so that at one point, it was even more expensive than gold!

And most of this silver was purchased from Spain. So supply was taken care of.

In this article, we will explore how this one decision of charging taxes in Silver helped China dominate the trade world for 400 years. And how the butterfly effect of the decision led to its eventual destruction.

How Britan’s Love For Tea Paved Way for The Opium Wars

In the 18th Century, China was the greatest economic and cultural capital of the world. It was a monarchy and was ruled by the great emperor Chen Lu.

At the time, the world was enthralled by China’s porcelain, silk, and, most importantly, tea. And if the world wanted to buy these much-coveted goods, they had to pay in the only currency that China accepted: Silver.

This is where Britain enters the scene. Known for its love of tea, Britain knew of only one country that could fulfill its demand. That was China. In fact, Britain purchased over 80% of all tea shipped from the port of Canton. And to buy tea, they had to pay in silver.

What’s interesting here is that only one company had the rights to import all of this tea. It was The British East India Company. Now the company wanted goods from China, but it didn’t have anything that China wanted in return. And so a LOT of money was being spent, but they were getting nothing in return.

This was a problem.

And so the British decided to sell a product that was even more intoxicating than tea and sell it to China: Opium.

In 1792, the East India company reached out to the British government to help them. The government appointed Lord McCartney, a statesman and diplomat, to head the trade mission to China. His role was to negotiate terms of trade that were advantageous to the English.

In the book ‘The Search For Modern China‘ by Pei-kai Cheng, Michael Lestz, and Jonathan D. Spence, it has been noted that the British Home Secretary wrote to Lord McCartney,

… upon the present view of the matter, I am inclined to believe that instead of attempting to gain upon the Chinese Administration by representations founded upon the intricacies of either European or Indian Politicks, you should fairly state, after repeating the general assurances of His Majesty’s friendly and pacific inclinations towards the Emperor, and his respect for the reputed mildness of his Administration, first the mutual benefit to be derived from a trade between the two Nations, in the course of which we receive beside other articles to the amount of twenty millions of Pounds weight of a Chinese herb, which would find very little vent, as not being in general use in other Countries, European or Asiatic, and for which we return woolens, cottons and other articles useful to the Chinese, but a considerable part is actually paid to China in bullion… Secondly, that the great extent of our commercial concerns in China, requires a place of security as a depot for such of our Goods as cannot be sold off or shipped during the short season that is allowed for our shipping to arrive and depart, and that for this purpose we wish to obtain a grant of a small tract of ground or detached Island, but in a more convenient situation than Canton, where our present warehouses are at a great distance from our Ships, and where we are not able to restrain the irregularities which are occasionally committed by the seamen of the Company’s Ships, and those of private traders. Thirdly, that our views are purely commercial, having not even a wish for territory; that we desire neither fortification nor defense but only the protection of the Chinese Government for our Merchants or their agents in trading or travelling…

In simpler terms, Lord McCartney was asked to persuade the Chinese Emperor to accept British goods as payment against their purchases, instead of insisting on silver. Along with that, they also wished to develop a ‘trading base’ on Chinese land. The British were optimistic about the trade agreement, as they believed their growing economic and military power would be their leverage.

The McCartney Mission

In September 1792, Lord McCartney, along with 700 soldiers, servants, musicians, and the like, set sail for China aboard 3 ships. They carried a variety of expensive gifts for the Chinese Emperor. They had a clear view of what their demands were, and they were expecting that, at the end of the negotiation, they would be granted land for the embassy.

They arrive in China in July 1793, and Lord McCartney is expecting that he will meet the Chinese Emperor to exchange gifts and pleasantaries. But it turns out that the Emperor was not present at Beijing, he had moved court to his summer residence at Chengdu. And thus began another waiting period for McCartney and his men.

What Happened When McCartney Met the Qianlong Emperor

When Lord McCartney arrived on the shores of China, the Qianlong Emperor was in his eighties. He had established himself as one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history and had ruled for nearly five decades. He expanded China’s rule into Central Asia and had fought several successful wars.

McCartney had written to say that he wanted to meet the emperor to wish him a happy 80th birthday. McCartney was asked to join in with the rest of the ambassadors who had come to pay their tributes. And just like others, he was also expected to kneel and press his head to the floor nine times. McCartney refused to do it. Instead, he opted for the British way of honoring the Emperor by dropping to one knee before presenting his gifts.

The above image is sourced from rgssa.org.au. It shows Lord McCartney and his men (bottom right) waiting in line to visit Qianlong Emperor, who was waiting in the Mongolian Tent pictured in the center.

Among all of the gifts that McCartney and his men presented to the emperor that day, the most important was the letter from King George III that was placed in a gold box that was encrusted with diamonds. The British had high hopes for the success of this letter, but contrary to their expectations, Qianlong Emperor kept the box on one side and didn’t even look at it.

When King George’s letter was finally translated and conveyed, the Chinese Emperor rejected the proposal.

Some of the key points mentioned in his reply are as follows:

I have already taken note of your respectful spirit of submission, have treated your mission with extreme favor and loaded it with gifts, besides issuing a mandate to you, O King, and honoring you with the bestowal of valuable presents. Thus has my indulgence been manifested.

Yesterday your Ambassador petitioned my Ministers to memorialize me regarding your trade with China, but his proposal is not consistent with our dynastic usage and cannot be entertained. Hitherto, all European nations, including your own country’s barbarian merchants, have carried on their trade with Our Celestial Empire at Canton. Such has been the procedure for many years, although Our Celestial Empire possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no product within its own borders. There was therefore no need to import the manufactures of outside barbarians in exchange for our own produce. But as
the tea, silk, and porcelain which the Celestial Empire produces are absolute necessities to European nations and to yourselves, we have permitted, as a signal mark of favor, that foreign hongs (Chinese business associations) should be established at Canton, so that your wants might be supplied and your country thus participate in our beneficence. But your Ambassador has now put forward new requests which completely fail to recognize the Throne’s principle to ‘treat strangers from afar with indulgence’, and to exercise a pacifying control over barbarian tribes, the world over. Moreover, our dynasty, swaying the myriad races of the globe, extends the same benevolence toward all. Your England is not the only nation trading at Canton. If other nations, following your bad example, wrongfully importune my ear with further impossible requests, how will it be possible for me to treat them with easy indulgence?

Nevertheless, I do not forget the lonely remoteness of your island, cut off from the world by intervening wastes of sea, nor do I overlook your excusable ignorance of the usages of Our Celestial Empire. I have consequently commanded my Ministers to enlighten your Ambassador on the subject, and have ordered the departure of the mission. But I have doubts that, after your Envoy’s return he may fail to acquaint you with my view in detail or that he may be lacking in lucidity, so that I shall now proceed to take your requests seriatim[one by one] and to issue my mandate on each question separately. In this way you will, I trust, comprehend my meaning.

(1)Your Ambassador requests facilities for ships of your nation to call at Ningpo, Chusan, Tientsin, and other places for purposes of trade. Until now trade with European nations has always been conducted at Macao, where the foreign hongs are established to store and sell foreign merchandise. Your nation has obediently complied with this regulation for years past without raising any objection. In none of the other ports named have hongs been established, so that even if your vessels were to proceed thither, they would have no means of disposing of their cargoes. Furthermore, no interpreters are available, so you would have no means of explaining your wants, and nothing but general inconvenience would result. For the future, as in the past, I decree that your request is refused and that the trade shall be limited to Macao.

(2)The request that your merchants may establish a repository in the capital of my Empire for the storing and sale of your produce, in accordance with the precedent granted to Russia, is even more impracticable than the last. My capital is the hub and centre about which all quarters of the globe revolve. Its ordinances are most august and its laws are strict in the extreme. The subjects of our dependencies have never been allowed to open places of business in Peking. Foreign trade has hitherto been conducted at Macao, because it is conveniently near to the sea, and therefore an important gathering place for the ships of all nations sailing to and fro. If warehouses were established in Peking, the remoteness of your country lying far to the northwest of my capital would render transport extremely difficult . . . .
This request is also refused.

(3)Your request for a small island near Chusan, where your merchants may reside and goods be warehoused, arises from your desire to develop trade. As there are neither foreign hongs nor interpreters in or near Chusan, where none of your ships have ever called, such an island would be utterly useless for your purposes. Every inch of the territory of our Empire is marked on the map and the strictest vigilance is exercised over it all: even tiny islets and far-lying sandbanks are clearly defined as part of the provinces to which they belong.
Consider, moreover, that England is not the only barbarian land which wishes to establish relations with our civilization and trade with our Empire: supposing that other nations were all to imitate your evil example and beseech me to present them each and all with a site for trading purposes, how could I possibly comply? This also is a flagrant infringement of the usage of my Empire and cannot possibly be entertained.

It was also made clear that if the British tried to use trade in any other port than the one that they were allowed in (Canton), there would be a war.

As the party was going back, the Chinese military was stationed all through their path to give a clear message that the words of the emperor were not just empty threats and that they had the military power to deal with the British.

The Aftermath of McCartney Mission

Once, China was seen as the land of beauty, but many first-hand reports started to come out saying that it was quite different from what they had expected. In his book,  Some Account of the Public Life, and a Selection from the Unpublished Writings, of the Earl of Macartney, Volume 2, is this quote on page p 412–413,

When Marco Polo, the Venetian, visited China in the thirteenth century, it was about the time of the conquest of China by the western or Mongol Tartars, with Kublai-khan, a grandson of Gengis-khan, at their head. A little before that period the Chinese had reached their highest pitch of civilization; and no doubt they were then a very civilized people in comparison of their Tartar conquerors, and their European contemporaries; but not having improved and advanced forward, or having rather gone back, at least for these hundred and fifty years past, since the last conquest by the northern or Mantchou Tartars, whilst we have been every day rising in arts and sciences, they are actually become a semi-barbarous people in comparison with the present nations of Europe. Hence it is that they retain the vanity, conceit, and pretensions that are usually the concomitants of half-knowledge; and that, though during their intercourse with the embassy, they perceived many of the advantages we had over them, they seemed rather surprised than mortified, and sometimes affected not to see what they could not avoid feeling. In their address to strangers they are not restrained by any bashfulness or mauvaise honte [“false modesty”–ed.], but present themselves with an easy confident air, as if they considered themselves the superiors, and that nothing in their manners or appearance could be found defective or inaccurate.

He says this about the emperor who rejected him,

…The empire of China is an old crazy first-rate man of war, which a fortunate succession of able and vigilant officers has contrived to keep afloat for these hundred and fifty years past; and to overawe their neighbors, merely by her bulk and appearance; but whenever an insufficient man happens to have the command upon deck, adieu to the discipline and safety of the ship. She may perhaps not sink outright; she may drift some time as a wreck, and will then be dashed in pieces on the shore; but she can never be rebuilt on the old bottom.

It was due to these accounts that the Chinese ruler was now mocked in many popular cartoons.

But other than making fun of the country and its monarch, the British had no option but to agree to the terms.

Books About the Opium War

Want to know more about the war? Here are some amazing reads: